As early as the 1850s, the Turners held annual athletic competitions called Turnfests. These events reflected the Turner philosophy that physical fitness was key to an active, productive life. After the Civil War, the national Turnfests grew considerably. By the early 20th century, several thousand competitors were participating, and the gymnastics contests were accompanied by parades, receptions, and musical and theatrical performances.

Pumroy, Eric L., and Katja Rampelmann, comps. Research Guide to the Turner Movement in the United States. Bibliographies and Indexes in American History 33. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996, xii.